International Journal of Environment and Climate Change

Agroforestry—deliberate integration of trees with crops and/or livestock on the same land—is increasingly promoted as a natural climate solution because it can store substantial amounts of carbon in biomass and soils while sustaining rural livelihoods. Recent meta-analyses and global assessments indicate that agroforestry systems generally hold higher soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks than adjacent croplands or pastures and that trees on agricultural land already represent a large, but under-recognised, component of national and global carbon budgets. Yet, the magnitude, permanence, and scalability of this mitigation potential are strongly context-dependent and shaped by system design, management, and socio-political conditions. This review synthesises current knowledge on biophysical mechanisms of carbon sequestration in agroforestry, including above- and belowground biomass accrual, SOC formation and stabilisation, and landscape- and microclimate-mediated processes. It then examines quantitative estimates of carbon stocks and sequestration rates across major agroforestry systems and climatic regions, highlighting key uncertainties and trade-offs. Advances and remaining gaps in the measurement, monitoring and modelling of agroforestry carbon are discussed in the light of evolving climate policy, carbon markets, and “natural climate solutions” frameworks. The review also considers co-benefits for livelihoods, biodiversity and adaptation, as well as risks related to leakage, permanence, equity and land tenure. Finally, it outlines priority research and policy directions to better integrate agroforestry into nationally determined contributions and high-integrity carbon markets while safeguarding social and ecological outcomes.